Apparatus, method and system for generating optical radiation from biological gain media

ABSTRACT

In one exemplary embodiment, an apparatus can be provided which includes at least one biological medium that causes gain. According to another exemplary embodiment, an arrangement can be provided which is configured to be provided in an anatomical structure. This exemplary arrangement can include at least one emitter having a cross-sectional area of at most 10 microns within the anatomical structure, and which is configured to generate at least one laser radiation. In a further exemplary embodiment, an apparatus can be provided which can include at least one medium which is configured to cause gain; and at least one optical biological resonator which is configured to provide an optical feedback to the medium. In still another exemplary embodiment, a process can be whereas, a solution of an optical medium can be applied to a substrate. Further, it is possible to generate a wave guide having a shape that is defined by (i) at least one property of the solution of the optical medium, or (ii) drying properties thereof.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure relates to exemplary embodiments of apparatus,methods and systems generating optical radiation, and more particularlyfor generating stimulated optical radiation from a biological gainmedium, such as, e.g., fluorescent proteins.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Lasers have revolutionized the processing of materials, enabled orsignificantly improved a vast variety of measurement techniques, andbecame an integral part in data storage and communication devices.Further progress in these fields is envisioned if the laser itself canbe further improved. Generating laser light more easily, or in materialsor systems in which generation of laser light has not been possible sofar is therefore of general interest. Particular progress is expected iflaser light can be generated in biological materials or in livingorganisms.

A variety of gain media have been used to generate laser light or toamplify optical radiation. Solid-state gain materials include crystals,such as ruby, Nd—YAG, Ti:Sapphire, rare-earth-ion doped optical fibers.Semiconductor lasers have been widely used. Other well-known gain mediainclude organic polymers, synthetic dyes, and various gases such asArgon and He—Ne, etc. Nevertheless, lasing and optical amplificationhave so far not been demonstrated with biological gain media.

Fluorescent proteins are used in the study of various processes in thelife sciences. They can be expressed as a functional transgene in a widevariety of organisms and mature into their fluorescent form in anautocatalytic process that does not require co-factors or enzymes. FPcan be tagged to other proteins without losing fluorescence and in mostcases without affecting the function of the tagged protein. This enablesin-vivo imaging of protein expression. Directed mutation of the originalFP, green fluorescent protein (“GFP”), has yielded variants withimproved maturation, brightness, and stability and FPs emitting acrossthe entire visible part of the spectrum. For example, DsRed, tdTomato,YFP, and CFP are well known. The actual fluorophore occupies a smallportion of a FP molecule, enclosed by a can-type cylinder consisting ofstrands of regular β-barrels This β-can structure is essential tofluorescence as it forces the fluorophore sequence into its emissiveconformation. It also protects the fluorophore from the environment andthus renders FPs stable against changes in the ambient conditions, e.g.pH and temperature. Finally, the unique protective molecular shellprevents concentration quenching of the fluorescence. While mostsynthetic fluorescent dyes loose their fluorescence at highconcentrations, FPs remain brightly fluorescent even in theircrystalline form. Nevertheless, a protein laser, i.e. a laser based onfluorescent proteins (“FP”) as the gain medium has not been demonstratedso far. A protein based optical amplifier has also not been demonstratedso far.

Apart from the gain material, an arrangement that provides opticalfeedback is usually needed for the laser to operate. Such arrangementscan be refereed to as optical resonators. Examples of the resonatorsinclude linear and ring cavities formed by pairs of mirrors or opticalfibers. Optical feedback can also be provided by photonic crystals.However, these arrangements are likely artificial and syntheticstructures. Optical resonators based on biological materials orbiological structures have not yet been demonstrated.

Thus, there may be a beneficial to address and/or overcome at least someof the deficiencies described herein above.

OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

To address and/or overcome the above-described problems and/ordeficiencies, exemplary systems, methods and apparatus are provided forgenerating stimulated optical radiation from a biological gain medium,such as, e.g., fluorescent proteins.

According to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure,exemplary apparatus can be provided which includes at least onebiological medium that causes gain. The biological medium can include aplurality of molecules for causing the gain, and/or fluorescentproteins. The fluorescent proteins can be situated within at least oneliving cell. Further, the biological medium can include biologicalmolecules in a solution, a solid state, gas, and/or within an anatomicalstructure. At least one arrangement can be provided in the apparatuswhich is configured to pump the biological gain medium to cause thegain. The biological medium can generate at least one electromagneticradiation with at least one spectral peak. In addition, the biologicalmedium can include at least two different biological moleculesconfigured or structured to support a resonant energy transfer from afirst of the biological molecules to a second of the molecules to causethe gain.

According to another exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, atleast one optical resonator can be provided in the apparatus which isconfigured to provide an optical feedback to the biological medium. Theoptical resonator can include a linear or ring cavity, photoniccrystals, a biological tissue, a random scattering medium, a micro-scalereflecting chamber, a nano-scale reflecting chamber, and/or plasmonicnano-particles. The optical resonator can at least partially include abiological structure that is at least partially periodic. The gain canbe provided by a stimulated emission in the at least one biologicalmedium.

In yet another exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, thebiological medium can be further configured to receive at least onefirst electro-magnetic radiation, and transmit at least one secondelectro-magnetic radiation. For example, the biological medium can beconfigured to amplify a magnitude of at least one of energy, power orintensity of the first electro-magnetic radiation to produce the secondelectro-magnetic radiation. The second electro-magnetic radiation can bethe amplified first electro-magnetic radiation. The biological mediumcan also be configured to generate at least one amplified spontaneousemission and/or at least one laser emission. A particular arrangementcan be provided in the apparatus which is configured to detect the laseremission, and generate information as a function of the laser emission.A further arrangement can be provided within the apparatus which isconfigured to generate at least one image of (i) the at least onebiological medium, and/or (ii) at least one sample associated with thebiological medium using the information.

According to a further exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, asource apparatus can be provided which includes at least one biologicalgain medium that is configured to generate at least one laser emission.According to still a further exemplary embodiment of the presentdisclosure, an arrangement can be provided which is configured to beprovided in an anatomical structure. The exemplary arrangement caninclude at least one emitter having a cross-sectional area of at most 10microns within the anatomical structure, and which is configured togenerate at least one laser radiation. The exemplary emitter can includethe biological medium. The radiation can be provided to facilitateinformation regarding the anatomical structure.

In yet another exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, anapparatus can be provided which includes at least one medium that isconfigured to cause gain, at least one optical biological resonator thatis configured to provide an optical feedback to the medium. The opticalbiological resonator can at least partially include a periodicstructure. The medium can be is a biological medium.

According to a particular exemplary embodiment of the presentdisclosure, a process can be provided. Using this exemplary process, itis possible to apply a solution of an optical medium to a substrate, andgenerate a wave guide having a shape that is defined by (i) at least oneproperty of the solution of the optical medium, or (ii) dryingproperties thereof. The optical medium can be a gain medium. The shapeof the waveguide can be further defined by an evaporation drivenmass-diffusion of the optical medium to a contact line between thesolution of the optical medium and the substrate.

These and other objects, features and advantages of the presentinvention will become apparent upon reading the following detaileddescription of embodiments of the invention, when taken in conjunctionwith the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Further objects, features and advantages of the invention will becomeapparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunctionwith the accompanying figures showing illustrative embodiments of thepresent disclosure, in which:

FIG. 1A is a schematic diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a proteinsolution laser in accordance with the present disclosure;

FIG. 1B is a graph of energy of laser output as a function of pumpenergy;

FIG. 1C is a graph of normalized output spectra of the protein laserfilled with eGFP solutions of different concentrations;

FIG. 1D is a set of illustrations of a spatial profile of a laseremission for ideal cavity alignment and of several deliberatemisalignments of cavity mirrors;

FIG. 1E is a graph of an exemplary measured lasing threshold fordifferent concentrations of eGFP in the cavity;

FIG. 2A is a diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a solid-state proteinlaser in accordance with the present disclosure;

FIG. 2B is a graph of energy of laser output of the exemplary laser ofFIG. 2A as a function of the pump energy;

FIG. 2C is a set of graphs of an output spectrum for lasers with twodifferent mirror separations, according to exemplary embodiments of thepresent disclosure;

FIG. 3A is a graph of energy of laser output as a function of the pumpenergy associated with characteristics of a laser based on GFPexpressing E. coli cells, according to exemplary embodiments of thepresent disclosure;

FIG. 3B is a set of graphs showing an output spectrum of the laserassociated with FIG. 3A at two excitation pulse energies;

FIG. 3C is an illustration of E. coli cells in lasing action, accordingto exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 4A is a side view of a solid-state protein structure implementing aself-assembly process, according to exemplary embodiments of the presentdisclosure;

FIG. 4B is a top view of the solid-state protein structure of FIG. 4Aimplementing the self-assembly process;

FIG. 4C is a side view of the solid-state protein structure of FIG. 4Aimplementing further procedures of the exemplary self-assembly process,where non-volatile parts of solutions are transported toward a rim of adroplet, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 4D is a top view of the solid-state protein structure of FIG. 4Cimplementing further procedures of the exemplary self-assembly process,wherein non-volatile parts of the solutions are transported toward therim of the droplet;

FIG. 5A is an image of surface topography of the “protein stain”, theself-assembled eGFP ring resonator laser, according to exemplaryembodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 5B is a combination of exemplary perspective view image and graphof an output energy of the ring resonator laser as a function of thepump energy for an intact and a disabled resonator;

FIG. 5C is a set of images of the ring laser taken at certain exemplarypump energies, according to exemplary embodiments of the presentdisclosure;

FIG. 5D is an exemplary graph of an emission spectrum from the eGFP ringresonator laser at the pump energies of FIG. 5C and from a turboRFP ringresonator laser;

FIG. 6A is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell laser whichincludes a micro-sphere cavity filled with a fluorescent protein,according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 6B is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell laser havingnon-linear emission characteristics determining a position of individualparticles or particle clusters, according to certain exemplaryembodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 6C is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell laser in whichsingle cells are embedded in suitable cavities, according to certainexemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 6D is an illustration of a nano-scale, protein cell laser in whichsingle cell lasing are applied for sorting of fluorescent labeled cells,according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

FIG. 6E is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell micro laser ina cell, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the presentdisclosure;

FIG. 6F is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell nano laser ina cell, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the presentdisclosure;

FIG. 7A is an illustration of an amplification of electromagneticradiation by stimulated emission in a biological gain medium, accordingto certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure; and

FIG. 7B is an illustration of a generation of an amplified spontaneousemission light from the biological gain medium of FIG. 7A, according tocertain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure.

Throughout the figures, the same reference numerals and characters,unless otherwise stated, are used to denote like features, elements,components or portions of the illustrated embodiments. Moreover, whilethe subject invention will now be described in detail with reference tothe figures, it is done so in connection with the illustrativeembodiments. It is intended that changes and modifications can be madeto the described exemplary embodiments without departing from the truescope and spirit of the subject disclosure as defined by the appendedclaims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

A gain medium generally amplifies light, and usually can replicate thequantum-mechanical state (phase, polarization, etc) of the amplifiedlight by a process known as a “stimulated emission”. The laser can beone application of this stimulated emission process which is known inthe art. For example, a laser can consist of three elements, e.g., again medium, an optical cavity (e.g., a resonator), and a pump source.Other exemplary uses of the stimulated emission known to the artinclude, e.g., optical amplifiers and amplified spontaneous emissionsources.

According to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, abiological medium can be used as a gain medium. One example of a classof the biological media that can be used as the gain media can includefluorescent proteins. For example, a protein laser or a protein opticalamplifier can utilize fluorescent proteins as the gain medium. Theprotein can be in the form of a solution. In particular, the protein canbe within a living organism, such as a biological cell, which cancontain the protein in the cytoplasm, nucleus, and/or organelles via,e.g., the expression of FP-encoding gene or the internalization orendocytosis of FP-containing particles. The fluorescent protein (or FP)can also be in the form of solid, such as an aggregate (e.g., afterdrying of a solution) or crystal. The protein crystal may have theadvantage of having a low transmission loss. For example, various smallorganic dyes, when in a high concentration solution or in an aggregate,tend to lose their ability of a fluorescence emission, a phenomenonknown as “quenching.” The relatively large molecular size and theencapsulation of the fluorophore in fluorescent proteins by a β-canstructure permit high concentrations without quenching.

Various designs for a laser cavity or resonator have been described. Oneexample of such a design is the use of structures which include a linearFabry-Perot and a ring cavity. A distributed feedback resonatorstructure is also described. While these exemplary resonators aregenerally in a one-dimensional form, two or three-dimensional (2D or 3D)cavities can also be used, which use 2D and/or 3D photonic crystals orrandom scattering (known as random lasers). Further, micro-scale andnano-scale cavities have been described, which can use a plasmoniceffect or structure to enhance a local light-matter interaction andreceive the pumping light more efficiently. The resonant wavelength(s)of the laser cavity can be selected to overlap with the emission band(s)of fluorescent proteins used as the gain medium.

The energy levels of most fluorescent proteins are relatively wellknown. Typically, such energy levels can form a three-level system,where the electrons in the ground state are pumped to upper excitedstates by a pumping source and relax to lower excited states through anonradiative decay. The electrons at the lower excited states fall backto the ground state, either by the spontaneous emission or thestimulated emission. The stimulated emission is predominant typicallyduring lasing or optical amplification. The inherent lifetime of thelower excited states is typically in the order of 0.5 to 10 ns. For theoptical gain to occur (which can be important for lasing andamplification), a pump source can be used to deliver sufficient energyto the gain medium so that more electrons are present in the lowerexcited state than in the ground states, a condition known as a“population inversion.”

The pumping is typically achieved optically by using a pump light sourceemitting excitation light at the wavelength(s) corresponding to theabsorption band(s) of the fluorescent proteins used in the gain medium.Available pump sources include Q-switched solid-state nanosecond lasers,femtosecond solid-state lasers, pulsed or continuous-wave semiconductorlasers, flashlight, and tunable optical parametric oscillator sources.Alternatively, pumping may be possible by fluorescent resonance energytransfer or electrically by injection current. Such pumping can also beachieved by bio- or chemiluminescence, for instance based on Luciferasesystems, as a way to form a bio-pumped laser or optical amplifier.

Exemplary GFP Solution Laser

According to one particular exemplary embodiment of the presentdisclosure, as shown in FIG. 1A, a solution 2 containing at least onefluorescent protein can be used as the gain medium of a laserarrangement 1.

In this exemplary embodiment, the exemplary laser arrangement 1 caninclude a rear cavity mirror 3 coated with a reflective coating 3 b anda front cavity mirror 4 with a reflective coating 4 b. The proteinsolution 2 can be placed between the mirrors 3, 4, where at least one ofmirrors 3, 4 can be semi-transparent to light with the wavelength of thelight emitted by at least one of the fluorescent proteins beingutilized. One or both of the mirrors 3, 4 can be flat and/or curved,preferably with concave curvature, with radii of the curvature between 5mm and 1000 mm, and between 8 mm and 100 mm. The distance of the mirrors3, 4 can be matched to their radius of curvature so as to form a cavityconfiguration, e.g., a stable cavity. The mirrors 3, 4 can be based onand/or use metallic or dielectric reflection(s), e.g., preferably adielectric reflection. The solution 2 can be optically excited using,for example, an output from the laser arrangement 1, an opticalparametric oscillator and/or an optical parametric amplifier, from theemission from a flash lamp or in other ways known to those havingordinary skill in the art.

In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 1A, the light 6 that excitesthe fluorescent protein can be focused onto the solution 2 containing atleast one fluorescent protein through one of the mirror 4 forming thecavity. In this exemplary embodiment, the mirror 4 is at leastsemi-transparent to the light, with the wavelength of the light used toexcite the fluorescent protein. The transmission can be higher than 10%of the light, and preferably higher than 60%. According to anotherexemplary embodiment, an additional dichroic mirror 5 can be used toreflect the light 6, with the wavelength used to excite one of thefluorescent proteins into the cavity, while transmit the light 7 emittedby at least one of the fluorescent proteins within the cavity.

To demonstrate that the fluorescent proteins can be used as the gainmedium of a laser, according to one exemplary embodiment of the presentdisclosure, a simple laser cavity consisting of two concave dichroicmirrors can be filled with, e.g., an aqueous 50 μM solution ofrecombinant eGFP, an enhanced and widely used mutant of the wild-typeGFP. The cavity mirrors in this exemplary embodiment can be highlyreflective in the range of the spectrum where eGFP emits (e.g.,reflectivity>99.9% for 500 nm<λ<560 nm), and transparent at wavelengthsλ<480 nm, e.g., in the region of the spectrum where eGFP is absorbing.This exemplary configuration facilitates a strong optical feedback for astimulated emission generated within the cavity, while also facilitatingan efficient optical pumping of the eGFP solution which was in our caseachieved by focusing the pulsed output from an optical parametricoscillator (OPO) operating at approximately 465 nm into the cavity.

FIG. 1B shows a graph of energy/light of an output of a laserarrangement as a function of the pump energy Ep of the excitation pulsesgenerated by the OPO, according to certain exemplary embodiments of thepresent disclosure. The solid line 21 represents a linear fit to thedata. The exemplary eGFP solution (c=50 μM) can be placed inside acavity with a length d=7 mm, curvature of mirrors r1=10 mm and r2=50 mm.The solution can be excited by the focused output of an opticalparametric oscillator (e.g., with pulse duration of 5 ns, λ=465 nm). Thelower inset shown in FIG. 1B shows the data from the main panel on amagnified scale. The arrow 20 in FIG. 1B indicates the intersection ofthe linear fit with the x-axis. In particular, according to the graph ofFIG. 1B, for Ep<14 nJ, no emission from the protein solution inside thecavity was observed. This can be expected, as the dichroic mirrorsreflect the fluorescence from eGFP almost entirely back into the cavity.However, once Ep is increased beyond 14 nJ, the cavity can begin to emitgreen light, and the cavity output can grow rapidly as the pump energyis increased further.

FIG. 1C illustrates a graph of normalized output spectra of the proteinlaser filled with eGFP solutions of different concentrations. Forexample, these exemplary concentrations include 2.5 μM (line 30), 50 μM(line 31), and 250 μM (line 32). The spontaneous fluorescence spectrumand the normalized absorption spectrum of eGFP are also shown in FIG. 1Cas lines 33 and 34, respectively. In particular, the spectrum of theemitted light (line 31) can be substantially narrowed (e.g., about 12 nmFWHM) compared to the spontaneous fluorescence spectrum of the eGFPsolution (line 33) (e.g., about 37 nm FWHM). The presence of a distinctthreshold pump energy above which the cavity output rapidly can increaseand the spectrally narrow output can be indications of lasing.

FIG. 1D shows illustrations of the spatial profile of the output beamfrom the fluorescent protein laser for four slightly differentalignments of the cavity mirrors. In particular, the exemplary patternscan be interpreted as higher transversal modes of the laser cavity(image ii—TEM01, image iii—TEM02, and image iv—TEM11). For an exemplaryoptimal alignment, a Gaussian emission profile can be seen in image i ofFIG. 1C, as can be understood for a laser arrangement operating at thezero-order transverse (TEM00) mode. Upon a deliberate misalignment(e.g., by slightly tilting one of the cavity mirrors), the spatialprofile can be changed to patterns indicating operation at higher ordermodes.

FIG. 1E shows a graph of a measured lasing threshold for differentconcentrations of eGFP in the cavity. The inset of FIG. 1E illustratesan exemplary variation of the output energy of the 50 μM eGFP laser.Data normalized to the initial output energy. In particular, in order totest the operational stability of our fluorescent protein laser, thefluorescent protein laser can be operated at pump energies ofapproximately 200 times above the threshold (Ep=2500 nJ). As shown inthe inset to FIG. 1E, no significant reduction in the output energy wasobserved over the course of 5000 pulses.

The above exemplary experiment was repeated for different concentrationsof the eGFP solution, and it was determined that lasing occurs down toconcentrations of 2.5 μM. As the concentration is reduced, the lasingwavelength shifts towards the blue (see spectrum line 30 in FIG. 1C).This is expected, as self-absorption from the tail of the eGFPabsorption band is less significant at low concentrations. For example,at the same time, the pump energy used to reach threshold increases asfewer fluorophores are available to overcome the cavity losses (see FIG.1D). We note that typical intracellular fluorescent proteinconcentrations are in the micro-molar to milli-molar range. Since thiscan be comparable to our lasing range, fluorescent protein based lasingmay be possible in-vivo or even in single cells if an appropriatelydesigned/structured cavity is utilized.

Exemplary Solid-State eGFP Laser

Similar to simple dye lasers, the line-width of the emission from theexemplary protein laser based on solutions of the protein can berelatively broad. This can result from the broad optical transition ineGFP and from the fact that the cavity effectively supports a continuumof modes with nearly identical roundtrip loss. Unlike conventionalfluorescent dyes, however, fluorescent proteins maintain their brightfluorescence at high concentrations and in solid state. This canfacilitate the use of the solid-state eGFP as the laser gain medium andprovide for an exemplary cavity configuration that can feature a reducedemission line-width, a considerably lower lasing threshold, and mayutilize substantially less protein.

Another exemplary embodiment of the arrangement according to the presentdisclosure is shown in FIG. 2B, which illustrates a diagram of anexemplary embodiment of a solid-state protein laser. The exemplarysolid-state protein laser can include a first flat back mirror 100 witha reflective coating/surface 100 a, and a second flat front mirror 102with a reflective coating 102 a. A solid protein 101 can be sandwichedbetween both mirrors 100, 102. The distance between the mirrors 100, 102can be adjusted by silica beads 103. The solid protein 101 can beoptically excited by a blue light 106. The laser can be configured toemit a green light 107 through the front and the back mirror 100, 102.

In particular, according to one exemplary embodiment, a droplet of aneGFP solution (c=0.1 mM) was left to dry on the surface 100 a of thefirst flat back mirror 100 with a reflective coating as described aboveand then covered with the second flat front mirror 102, using calibratedsilica beads (103) (e.g., diameter d=18 μm) to adjust the mirrorseparation. Due to the short distance between the mirrors 100, 102, thiscavity can support likely only discrete longitudinal modes, separated byΔλ≈λ²/(2dn)=5.6 nm, where n≈1.51 is the refractive index of the mediuminside the cavity. The spectrum which can be emitted by this lasercavity can consist of several sharp lines as shown by a spectrum 130 ofFIG. 2C, which illustrates a set of graphs of an output spectrum forlasers with two different mirror separations, according to exemplaryembodiments of the present disclosure. Such laser cavity can have aspacing (e.g., 5.4±0.2 nm) that can be in good agreement with the valueestimated from the above equation. When the cavity length is reducedfurther (e.g., by leaving out the silica beads 103), the laser cangenerate a single line with a spectral width below the resolution of thespectrometer (e.g., FWHM<0.2 nm). Similar to the solution-based laser,the solid-state eGFP laser showed a distinct kink in output energy withincreasing pump energy (see FIG. 2B which illustrates a graph of energyof laser output of the exemplary laser of FIG. 2A as a function of thepump energy) but began to lase at considerably lower pump energies(1.9±0.2 nJ). The reduced threshold of the solid-state protein laser canbe attributable to the increased concentration of eGFP, which can resultin a substantially higher gain per unit volume. The usable pump energiescan be well within the range of output energies available fromcommercial diode pumped solid-state lasers and high repetition ratefemto-second laser systems which can provide applications of lasing fromfluorescent proteins in imaging or sensing applications.

Exemplary Bio Laser Using Proteins in a Living Cell

Fluorescent proteins can also facilitate lasing in-vivo. In oneexemplary arrangement according to the present disclosure, a culture ofE. coli expressing wild-type GFP can be smeared out on the surface of aflat mirror and covered with a second flat mirror as described above.The cavity can be optically pumped, and the output can be monitored as afunction of the excitation pulse energy, as shown in FIG. 3A. Thisdrawing illustrates a graph of energy of laser output as a function ofthe pump energy associated with characteristics of a laser based on GFPexpressing E. coli cells, according to exemplary embodiments of thepresent disclosure. A distinct kink can be observed, although at ahigher pump energy (150±10 nJ) than for the recombinant protein laser.This can be attributed to the presence of additional intracavity lossesintroduced by scattering of light at the cell walls and at intracellularstructures. Since the cell laser is based on the less efficientwild-type GFP variant and the reduced protein concentration (compare theillustrations of FIG. 1D) may also contribute to the increased lasingthreshold. For pump energies just above the lasing threshold, the outputspectrum of the cell laser can include well-defined sharp lines (asindicated by spectrum 231 in FIG. 3B which illustrates a set of graphsof an output spectrum of the laser associated with the illustration ofFIG. 3A at two excitation pulse energies). At higher pump energies,however, these lines widened into an ensemble of closely spaced peaks(as indicated by spectrum 230 in FIG. 3B), which can be indicative ofoptical inhomogeneities inside the laser cavity. Among other factors,this can be due to the different orientation of individual E. colicells. FIG. 3C shows an illustration of E. coli cells in lasing action,according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

Exemplary Ring Resonator Laser

In another exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, the resonatorof the laser arrangement can be provided or created by a self-assemblyprocess that can use a pattern formed during the drying of a drop of thesolution or dispersion on a surface. The drop can have a volume of,e.g., 100 μl or less. The resonator can have a closed geometry, such ascircular, or an open geometry, such as linear, or be closed byreflecting structures.

In one exemplary embodiment of the arrangement according to the presentdisclosure as shown in FIGS. 4A-4D, the interplay between the surfaceenergy of the solution 300 on a substrate 301 is illustrated. Inparticular, FIGS. 4A and 4B show respective side and top views of asolid-state protein structure implementing a self-assembly process,according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. FIGS. 4Cand 4D shows respective side and top views of the solid-state proteinstructure of FIG. 4A implementing further procedures of the exemplaryself-assembly process, whereas non-volatile parts of solutions aretransported toward a rim of a droplet, according to exemplaryembodiments of the present disclosure;

For example, as shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, the droplet of fluorescentprotein solution 300 is applied during the drying process on thesubstrate 301. The non-volatile parts of the solutions are transportedtowards the rim of the droplet as indicated by the arrows 302. As shownin FIGS. 4C and 4D, a dried droplet 300 a is formed with a donut-shapedstructure on the substrate 301. The material diffusion within thesolution and the evaporation dynamics is responsible for the formationof a well-defined rim 300 a of the non-volatile material or materialsdissolved or dispersed in the solution at the outer contact line of thedroplet 300. The droplet 300 can be produced by pipetting, ink-jetprinting, electro-spray processes or other methods known to the art. Therim 300 a formed during the drying of the droplet defines or assist withdefining a waveguide with a circular shape.

According to a certain exemplary embodiment of the arrangement accordingto the present disclosure, the solution or dispersion used in theexemplary process shown in FIGS. 4A-4D can contain one or more differentfluorescent proteins that can be used to provide an optical gain withinthe circular waveguide formed during the drying of the droplet.According to another exemplary embodiment of the arrangement accordingto the present disclosure, the solution can contain one or morefluorescent polymers, including but not limited to polymers of thepoly(p-phenylene vinylene) and poly-co-fluorene families, or monomers ofsynthetic nature, including but not limited to rhodamine, fluorescein,coumarin, stilbene, umbelliferone, tetracene and malachite green, toprovide the gain and possibly additional compounds that serve thepurpose of improving the properties of the emissive species and thematerial in general, in particular the mechanical and opticalproperties.

According to a further exemplary embodiment of the arrangement accordingto the present disclosure, evanescent coupling procedures can be used toextract energy from the resonator. For example, according to thisexemplary embodiment, the resonator can be placed in the proximity of atapered optical fiber or a slab waveguide. The distance betweenresonator and fiber or waveguide can be in the range of about 10 nm to100 μm, preferably about 10 nm to 10 μm.

According to an additional exemplary embodiment of the arrangementaccording to the present disclosure, fluorescent proteins can be used asgain medium and also form a ring resonator and thus generate laser lightwithout an external cavity. Whenever a drop of a solution dries on asubstrate, the capillary flow during solvent evaporation causes thenon-volatile components of the solution to be primarily deposited at theouter edge of the drop, which is also known as coffee stain effect.μl-droplets of an eGFP solution (1 mM) form very homogeneous rings ofprotein with μm-scale width and thickness. This can be compared to theillustration of FIG. 5A, which shows an image of surface topography ofthe “protein stain”, the self-assembled eGFP ring resonator laser,according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Indeed,the surface topography of the “protein stain” can be formed by drying a1 μl drop of a 1 μM eGFP solution, and the data can acquired by opticalprofilometry.

In this example, a single droplet of the eGFP solution can be depositedon a low refractive-index substrate (e.g., n≈1.34) to utilize these“protein stains” as circular waveguides and ring resonators. Theexemplary difference in refractive index from the protein (n≈1.51) tothe substrate and the surrounding air, respectively, can lead towaveguiding inside the protein ring. If the optical gain in thisexemplary circular waveguide is sufficient to overcome the loss, such astructure acts as a laser, with the optical feedback provided by thering that feeds the light back onto its original trajectory after eachroundtrip. A fraction of the circulating light can be continuouslyextracted, e.g. by inherent bending losses. This light can be emitted inthe plane of the ring and can propagate along tangents to the ring asillustrated in the inset to FIG. 5B, which illustrates a combination ofexemplary perspective view image and graph of an output energy of thering resonator laser as a function of the pump energy for an intactresonator. This drawing can be produced for the intact ring (e.g., seeclosed symbols as shown in FIG. 5B) or after the ring is cut open (e.g.,see open symbols as shown in FIG. 5B), with straight lines 320 and 320 arepresenting linear fits, and the inset portion of the drawingillustrating the pump configuration and the light-leakage from the ringresonator. The leakage can become significant compared toomni-directional non-guided emission from the protein if the circulatinglight is amplified by stimulated emission. As shown in the inset to FIG.5B, the protein ring can be optically excited from the top with pulsesof blue light. The emission from the protein ring resonator can becollected from the edge of the sample and either imaged or passed to aspectrometer.

FIG. 5C shows images taken of the ring laser taken at certain exemplarypump energies, according to exemplary embodiments of the presentdisclosure at two different pump energies (e.g., top image: Ep=0.5 μJ,bottom image: Ep=3 μJ). For the lower pump energy, the entire ring canemit homogeneously. At the higher pump energy, however, the light can bemostly emitted from the left and the right edge of the ring, e.g., inthe regions where any light leaking from the circulating waveguide modepropagates towards the camera. The additional bright spot in the leftupper half of the ring can result from a small defect which can causescattering of the waveguided light. As shown in FIG. 5B, the intensityof the light emitted from the edge of the ring increases rapidly forEp>1 μJ. This threshold energy corresponds to a flux of 100 nJ/mm².

Above the threshold, the spectrum of the emitted light is dominated byseveral closely spaced sharp lines, as shown in a spectrum 340 in FIG.5D, which illustrates an exemplary graph of an emission spectrum fromthe eGFP ring resonator laser at the pump energies of FIG. 5C). Theemission spectrum from the eGFP ring resonator laser at pump energies of0.5 μJ is shown as a line 340 a, and 3 μJ as a line 340. The exemplarychange in the spatial profile of the emission, the threshold behaviorand the collapse of the emission spectrum can indicate that the proteinring resonator indeed forms a laser. To confirm that waveguiding in theprotein ring is the responsible mechanism for optical feedback, a smallsection (˜200 μm) of the ring can be cut away, and the above describedmeasurements can be repeated. A kink in the input-output characteristics(see FIG. 5B, e.g., open symbols) or spectral narrowing of the emissionwould likely not be observed.

For example, lasing from fluorescent proteins is not limited to thegreen part of the spectrum. A ring resonator formed by the redfluorescent protein turboRFP can also provide indications of lasing. Theexemplary graph of FIG. 5D also shows the emission spectrum of thislaser above the lasing threshold 345 along with the spontaneousfluorescence spectrum of turboRFP 345 a. There can be significantimprovements in the efficiency and directionality of these ringresonator lasers if, e.g., the light is extracted into an adjacentlinear waveguide by evanescent coupling.

Exemplary Crystal Laser

An exemplary drying process can leave a randomly distributed aggregateof proteins. Alternatively or in addition, since the molecular structureand genetic sequence of many proteins can already be known, proteincrystals can be formed and utilized as a gain medium with the advantageof high concentration and negligible optical scattering-induced loss.

The crystalline lens in the eye can be transparent mainly because of theperiodic stacking of lens fibers. A lens that is engineered to producefluorescent proteins can be used as a gain medium to produce laser lightin vivo.

Exemplary Fiber Laser

According to still another exemplary embodiment of the arrangement ofthe present disclosure, a hollow optical fiber or photonic crystal fibercan be filled with a solution containing one or several fluorescentproteins. The fiber can be made of glasses, plastics, or biodegradablepolymers. The guiding of light in such fiber can be achieved by making aportion of the cladding of the fiber air-filled or by using anti-guidingstructures and/or by using a fiber consisting of a cladding materialwith a refractive index that can be lower than the index of refractionof the protein solution. At least one of the proteins in the fiber canbe optically excited by coupling light into the fiber. The emission fromat least one of the proteins is guided inside the fiber.

According to yet another exemplary embodiment of the arrangement of thepresent disclosure, such exemplary structure can be used as a laser andoptical feedback is provided by reflecting elements, such as mirrors orBragg gratings, at the two ends of the fiber or by an optical feedbackstructure distributed along the fiber or by closing the fiber to a ringresonator structure.

According to yet a further exemplary embodiment of the arrangement ofthe present disclosure, the exemplary structure can be used as anamplifier. For example, light carrying an optical signal can be coupledinto the fiber, together with light exciting at least one of theproteins in the fiber. The optical signal can be amplified by astimulated emission from at least one of the proteins as it propagatesalong the fiber. The optical signal can be extracted from the other endof the fiber and separated from any residual excitation light usingfilters or other suitable means.

Exemplary Laser Particles

According to yet another exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure,it is possible to provide a variety of miniature lasers usingfluorescent proteins. As shown in the exemplary embodiment of thepresent disclosure of FIG. 6A, it is possible to utilize a highlyreflective micro-shell structure 400 encapsulating fluorescent proteins401 in a solution or solid-state. If the shell provides sufficientreflectivity, lasing can be possible. For example, the cavity can be aspherical or tubular structure and range from 1 mm to below tennanometers in diameter. Other gain materials, such as fluorescentpolymers or dyes, can replace the proteins as the gain medium.

Such exemplary micro-lasers can be used for a variety of biomedicalapplications. For example, it is possible to inject the laser“particles” into a live animal, intravenously, orally, orsubcutaneously. The particles can diffuse into specific locations in thebody, or their surface can be functionalized so that they targetspecific cells and compartments preferentially. Under sufficient pumplight, the particles emit laser light that can facilitate detection,diagnosis, and/or treatment. FIG. 6B shows an illustration of amicro-scale, protein cell laser having non-linear emissioncharacteristics determining a position of individual particles orparticle clusters, according to certain exemplary embodiments of thepresent disclosure. For example, as shown in FIG. 6B, the nonlinearthreshold of lasing can facilitate the location of the particle to bedetermined in 3D space, in a similar way as used in multiphotonmicroscopy. In particular, the non-linear emission characteristics candetermine the position of individual particles or particle clusters 410inside tissue 411 in 3D as particles 410 a located in the focus of anexcitation beam 412 reach threshold at lower absolute excitationintensity.

Exemplary Single Cell Laser

Lasing from a single biological cell should be possible. FIG. 6Cillustrates a micro-scale, protein cell laser in which single cells areembedded in suitable cavities, according to certain exemplaryembodiments of the present disclosure. As shown in FIG. 6C, a cell 420,e.g., either eukaryote or prokaryote, can be configured or engineered toproduce fluorescent proteins and/or prepared to contain fluorescentproteins in the cytoplasm, and then provided inside a high-finessecavity 421. The cavity 421 can be a 1D, 2D, or 3D photonic crystal madeof silicon, sapphire, silica or silicon nitride (Si₃N₄), for example, bylithography. FIG. 6D illustrates a micro-scale, protein cell laser inwhich single cell lasing are applied for sorting of fluorescent labeledcells, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the presentdisclosure. In this exemplary embodiment, a fluorescent labeled cell 430can be delivered to a laser cavity consisting of a back reflector 432and a partial front reflector 433 by a microfluidic channel 431, whichcan be used for cell detection and sorting with an advantage of higherand directed signal intensity. In particular, single cell lasingprocedure can be facilitated for sorting of the fluorescent labeledcells 430 present in the fluidic channel 431 equipped with the cavity432, 433. For example, the emitted radiation 434 provides informationabout the cells.

Exemplary Intracellular Lasing

FIG. 6E shows an exemplary illustration of a micro-scale, protein cellmicro laser in a cell, according to certain exemplary embodiments of thepresent disclosure. For example, lasing particles 440 with sizes thatcan be less than 10 micron or preferably less than 200 nm can be used toproduce the laser light from within a biological cell 442. Particularlyconfigured or engineered nanoparticles, such as gold rods, withplasmonic absorption peaks matched to the absorption and/or emissionband of fluorescent proteins can be used to produce laser light fromwithin the cell 442. Such nanoparticles can serve as an antenna for thepump light as well as the cavity of lasing light. FIG. 6D shows anillustration of a micro-scale, protein cell nano laser in a cell,according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Inparticular, exemplary nano particles 441 or lasers can be provided inthe cell 442. For example, metallic nano-particles can act as antenna443 for the pump light and form a plasmonic lasing cavity.

Such intracellular lasing or single-cell lasing can be useful forvarious applications including imaging, detection, drug screening, orcellular biology. The number of fluorescence channels used in imagingand cytometry can be limited by the broad spectral widths, typicallyabout 50 to 100 nm, of fluorescence emission. The line-width can bereduced to sub nanometer in the laser emission. The center wavelength ofthe emission can be adjusted by the resonance of the cavity. Thisfeatures can avail more than 100 channels for more accurate,high-throughput measurement.

Exemplary Laser Based on Biological Structures

In one exemplary embodiment according to the present innovation,photonic structures that are formed in living organisms can be used asthe resonator of a laser. In one example, a wing of a butterfly, inparticular of those species with wings colored by structural color, orsections of such a wing can be used. The wing or section thereof can besoaked in a solution containing a fluorescent protein, fluorescentpolymer, or laser dye, including but not limited to the materials listedin the pervious embodiments. The fluorescent material can also beapplied by spray deposition, ink-jetting or other suitable proceduresknown in the art. The fluorescent material can also comprise, at leastin part, fluorescent proteins that can be expressed in the organism,creating a situation where both the laser resonator and the gain mediumare formed by a living organism. The wing or section thereof can then beexcited by light with a wavelength that is absorbed by the fluorescentmaterial present, using, e.g., a pulsed light source, as described inthe exemplary embodiments herein.

Exemplary Amplifier and Amplified Spontaneous Emission Source

For example, an excited biological gain medium can be used foramplifying the magnitude of electromagnetic radiation. In an exemplaryillustration shown in FIG. 7A which provides an illustration of anamplification of electromagnetic radiation by stimulated emission in abiological gain medium, according to certain exemplary embodiments ofthe present disclosure, population inversion can be accomplished in abiological gain medium 510 by a pumping arrangement 520. The excitedbiological gain medium 510 can receive an input electromagneticradiation 530, and produce an output electromagnetic radiation 540. Themagnitude of the output radiation 540 can be higher than that of theinput radiation 530. Certain exemplary applications of such biologicalamplifier can be implemented. For example, such amplifier can be used toamplify optical signals in integrated optic circuits or opto-fluidicdevices, and also to boost fluorescence or inelastic scattering signalswithin tissues. When a population inversion is accomplished and/or whenthe gain is greater than one, the gain medium can produce an outputelectromagnetic radiation with a substantial magnitude even in theabsence of an input electromagnetic radiation. One such phenomenon isknown as amplified spontaneous emission (ASE).

FIG. 7B shows an illustration of a generation of an amplifiedspontaneous emission light from the biological gain medium of FIG. 7A,according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure.According to the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 7B, seed photons can begenerated within the gain medium 510 via a spontaneous emission, such asthe fluorescence light. Once generated, the emission can propagatethrough the gain medium, get amplified by the gain medium via thestimulated emission process, and result in an output light 550 with asubstantially higher magnitude than the spontaneous emission seed. Thespectrum of the ASE light can be narrower than that of the seed light.

The foregoing merely illustrates the principles of the presentdisclosure. Various modifications and alterations to the describedembodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of theteachings herein. For example, more than one of the described exemplaryarrangements, radiations and/or systems can be implemented to implementthe exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. It will thus beappreciated that those skilled in the art will be able to devisenumerous systems, arrangements and methods which, although notexplicitly shown or described herein, embody the principles of thepresent disclosure and are thus within the spirit and scope of thepresent disclosure. In addition, to the extent that the prior artknowledge has not been explicitly incorporated by reference hereinabove, it is explicitly being incorporated herein in its entirety.

What is claimed is:
 1. An apparatus, comprising: at least one engineeredor modified biological gain medium that causes gain; and at least onearrangement which is configured to pump the at least one biological gainmedium to cause the gain, wherein the at least one arrangement includesat least one of a bioluminescent source or a chemiluminescent source ofan optical radiation.
 2. An apparatus, comprising at least oneengineered or modified biological gain medium that causes gain, whereinthe at least one biological medium includes at least two differentbiological molecules configured or structured to support a resonantenergy transfer from a first of the at least two biological molecules toa second of the at least two biological molecules to cause the gain. 3.An apparatus, comprising: at least one engineered or modified biologicalgain medium that causes gain; and at least one optical resonatorconfigured to provide an optical feedback to the at least one biologicalgain medium.
 4. The apparatus according to claim 3, wherein the at leastone optical resonator includes at least one of a linear or ring cavity,photonic crystals, a biological tissue, a random scattering medium, amicro-scale reflecting chamber, a nano-scale reflecting chamber, orplasmonic nano-particles.
 5. The apparatus according to claim 3, whereinthe at least one optical resonator at least partially includes abiological structure that is at least partially periodic.
 6. Anapparatus, comprising at least one engineered or modified biologicalgain medium that causes gain, wherein the least one biological medium isfurther configured to receive at least one first electro-magneticradiation, and transmit at least one second electro-magnetic radiation,and wherein the least one biological medium is configured to amplify amagnitude of at least one of energy, power or intensity of the at leastone first electro-magnetic radiation to produce the at least one secondelectro-magnetic radiation.
 7. The apparatus according to claim 6,wherein the at least one second electro-magnetic radiation is the atleast one amplified first electro-magnetic radiation.
 8. An apparatus,comprising: at least one engineered or modified biological gain mediumthat causes gain, and configured to generate at least one laseremission; and a particular arrangement which is configured detect the atleast one laser emission, and generate information as a function of theat least one laser emission.
 9. The apparatus according to claim 8,further comprising a further arrangement which is configured generate atleast one image of at least one of (i) the at least one biologicalmedium, or (ii) at least one sample associated with the at least onebiological medium using the information.
 10. A configuration comprisingat least one biological cell that has at least one engineered ormodified gain and at least one resonator within the at least one cellconfigured to cause a stimulated emission of radiation.